Methods of measuring stress and their effectiveness

Methods of measuring underscore and their effectualness initiatoryly introduced by Hans Selye (1950), the full term mental strain is more(prenominal) employ to describe an several(prenominal)s resign of tautness which is lots seen as being related to modern smell. However, breed assessment is do victimisation different rule which includesSelf stemBio health checkPhysiologicalSelf report Life events (Holmes and Rahe 1976)The most communal way of carriage of assessing line is by ego-report questionnaires, in which psyches answer questions ab off their genial or physical state. As a result, devil medical doctors, Holmes and Rahe (1976) suggested that subject life events, whether good or bad, were potentially trying. Holmes and Rahe were the first to record the make of life events in a placementatic way. By their study, they observed that patients pr identification numberically experienced several life events in the months before the onset of meetion, a nd as a result, these life events fronted to be associated with poor health and try out. They suggested that, filter is ca employ by change that cease lead to greater susceptibility to physical and psychological health disorders. They demonst numberd the associations betwixt life events, tensity and illness by developing some method of measuring life events. Accordingly, they compiled the Social adjustment Rating shell (SRRS) by examining 5000 patient records and making a constitute of 43 life events both positive and negative that seemed to precede illness . Approximately 400 participants were involved in the rating of severally peak in cost of the quantity of test produced, out of which 500 was depute to marriage as a reference point. The averaged results were past divided by 10 to get a measure of the single(a) events in terms of life change units (LCU).An example of Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)LIFE EVENTSRankLife Event puree Value1Death of a spo engage ment1002Divorce733Marital separation654Jail term635Death of a close family member636Personal injury or illness537Marriage508Fired at determine479Marital reconciliation4510Retirement4513Sex difficulties3923Son or little girl leaving2938Change in calmnessing habits1640Change in eating habits1541 holiday1342Christmas1243Minor violations of the practice of lawlaw11ReferenceAdapted from Holmes, T., Rahe, R. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. diary of psychosomatic query, 11, 213-218.Doctors, Holmes and Rahe (1967) findings suggested that the idiom of life events is correlated with physical illness hence experiencing life events increases the chances of sift-related health breakdown. They were up to now criticised for being bias by basinvas all Ameri sack up men and development precisely correlational methods.Assessing the effectiveness of the Self report as a method of reach barThe SRRS provides the basis for perhaps the most active current bea of vehemence search and also retrospective investigation using either the SRRS or SRE (Schedule of Recent Experience) give birth demonstrated a linear relationship between mounting life change, cardiac death, accidents, diabetes, leukaemia and infectious disease (Holmes Masuda, 1974).Using the research questionnaire, Holmes Rahe (1950) tested mingled sub-groups to see if the ratings were consistent, e.g. male and female, single and married and so on. As there was strong agreement between different groups, it seemed that the SRRS was a valid measure for all types of mickle regardless of their backgrounds. This contri moreoveres to the effectiveness of the egotism report method of tense up measurement.This SRRS questionnaire (Holmes and Rahe, 1976) has served as a well-known quill for measuring the amount of try out adept has experienced within the erstwhile(prenominal) stratum. Taking the test cornerst hotshot help unitary see all the way if theyre at risk of illness due to exten d.The method provided some of the first evidence that there is a genuine association between trying life events and physical illness.Also, the fact that physical health was assessed after life events increases the chances that life events were helping to urinate problems with physical health, rather than the other way roundThe Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) and the research associated with it match a major break through, this is because, it is now generally accepted that life events of confused kinds dismiss influence our psychological well-being and our physical and mental health.The victimisation of the SRRS has made it easier to carry out research to test these ideas. This in male constituent has led to a cleargonr understanding of the ways in which life events affect us.Indirect evidence that directionful life events play a intent in life threatening diseases was reported by Selye, Tache and Day (1979).According to these researchers, pubic louse was more spec ial K among adults who separate, widowed or separated than among those who were married. The most liable(predicate) explanation is that, those who were non married were deformed because of lack of social support. It is however hard to establish causal relationships from lots(prenominal) data (SSRS data). Perhaps those who were divorced or separated were more vulnerable to stress than those who were married hence, this stress vulnerability played a role in the collapse of their marriages champion of the limitations to this method is that, it has often been assumed that almost any serious life provoke help to produce any type of illness. This has led to a relative ignoring of more special(prenominal) effects. Supporting evidence to this effect was where, two men, Finlay -Jones and Brown (1981) tack that anxious patients were more likely than de ironed patients to birth experienced danger events(involving future threats), whereas depress patients were more likely to stool ex perienced loss events (involving past loses). More research into much(prenominal) studies volition however be useable.A nonher negative side of the SRRS is that, a follow of studies nurture shown that peoples illness order increase following increase rates in stress scores. However, a number of items on the scale ar vague e.g. personal injury or illness appears to suggest that soul could have the same stress score for flu and cancer. Second, there is no general failure to consider the impact of an event on an individual. Christmas is considered to be a mildly trying event, yet to some people, Christmas whitethorn seem extremely nerve-racking, as it may emphasize their loneliness.The SRRS has face validity because some of the events listed ar easily recognisable as stressful events. The score accounts Allocated to each stress event have been c atomic number 18fully calculated from data provided by the opinions of more people. The survey form can be strikeed out easil y and quickly.With reference to Raphael et al. (1991), Self-report measures of life events are unreliable. A study had subjects fill out a scale regarding life events they experienced during the prior year. The subjects then filled out the same Questionnaire e truly month for a year. Towards the shutdown of the year the reports were quite different from the ones made at the beginning of the year (Raphael, et al. 1991). The questionnaire or scale also ignores chronic stresses such(prenominal) as cash problems, general hassles etc. Taking this into account, the measure could be considered invalid.Biomedical Stress and ulcers (Brady 1958)One of the biomedical methods of measuring stress is the evidence that stress may be a causal factor in tolerate ulcers. This research was first described by Joseph Brady (1958). Brady did classic studies linking high aims of stress to increase hormone production and the increase of ulcers. Brady did this by placing monkeys in res gentility chairs and conditioned them to press a lever. The monkeys were then given shocks e rattling 20 seconds unless the lever was pressed during the same time. This experiment however came to an abrupt halt when unexpectedly many of the monkeys died because of ulcers ca apply by raised gastrointestinal hormone levels. The question put off was whether the ulcers resulted from the electric shock or the stress. To enhance his results, Brady and his mates used yoked over visits where one monkey called executive was liable for imperious the lever while a second monkey received the shocks but had no control oer the lever. Thus, only the executive monkey had the physiologic stress of having to press the lever, but both animals received shocks. later on 23 days of 6 hours on and off schedule, the executive monkey died because of perforated ulcer. Brady initially thought that the stress might be related to the reinforcement schedule. He also try several other routines such as 18 hours on and 6 hou rs off and tested the executive monkey to find out that stomach acidity was greatest during this period.After the experiment, Brady concluded that it was clearly stress, not the shocks that created the ulcers. Having give tongue to that, he also concluded that the greatest danger happened while the clement stimulant stopped and the stomach was flooded with digestive hormones, which is a parasympathetic nervous system rebound linked with hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, hence HPA.Assessing the effectiveness of the biomedical as a method of stress measurementThe research carried out by Brady (1958) turn up effectively that stress may be a causal factor in stomach ulcers. Stress often increases the secretion of hydrochloric acid, which plays in the development of some ulcers. Stress also weakens the defences of the gastrointestinal tract against this acid, thereby permitting gastric ulcers to develop. (Pinel, 1997).Supporting evidence to the effectiveness of Bradys ex periment is Weiner et al. (1957) findings in support to Bradys experiment. Weiner et al. (1957) used army recruits to test for the effectiveness of Bradys experiment. Prior to basic tuition, the soldiers were tested and classed on the basis of their release of digestive enzymes as over-secretors or under -secretors. After four months of stressful formulation, 14% of the over-secretors had real ulcers, whereas none of the under-secretors had. This suggests not only that the same principles apply to kind-hearteds, but also that individual differences may be important in view of the fact that not all of the over-secretors developed ulcers.Biochemical method of measuring stress involves adrenaline and noradrenalin hormones. These hormones provides effective measures of stressThe research also suggested that too much stress at hold can lead to development of ulcers.Bradys experiment was however criticised for not helter-skelter selecting the monkeys and also, using non-human sample sSubsequent research has also demonstrated that ulcers are not always stress related, there could be an underlying biological cause. E.g. fungus kingdomBradys experiment is associated with the Hypothalamic -Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis, this in effect elevates levels of glucose and some hormones including the ACTH (Acetylcholine) and the ashes continues to use its resources at an accelerating rate.Stress-triggered increases in heart rate and consanguinity pressure. This may result in the deterioration and blocking of beginning vessels thereby increase cardiovascular disorders and chronic stress.Many physical, organisational and social factors in the workplace can become sources of stress, normally exerting a relatively long-term, stable and chronic influence. take to the woods overload, lack of control, and poor interpersonal relations at work may all lead distress, ill health and eventual burnout. Hence, biomedical serves as a suitable method for assessing stress at a work pla cePhysiological BiofeedbackPhysiological measures in stress provide indications of the level of sympathetic nervous arousal. This can include a persons heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration rate and so on. One of the common physiological methods used in measuring stress is biofeedback.Biofeedback is a technique which involves recording the bodily process of the physiological systems of the bodys stress response, that is the heart rate, blood pressure or tension in the neck muscles. This enables the individual to monitor their own physiological arousal in real times and develop control over it (Gatchel, 1997). During the process, the individual is attached is attached to a machine which produces feedback about some physiological activity such as an auditory or visual omen to indicate whether his / her heart rate is too high or moderate. The individual is also trained in techniques to reduce physiological aspects of stress such as relaxation training. One of the common ways h umans can learn to control their brain-waves is by using electroencephalogram ( encephalogram) biofeedback.Electroencephalogram (EEG)An EEG involves placing electrodes on a persons scalp to record the wee changes in galvanizing activity of the brain. These changes are displayed on a computer screen. EEGs are often used to measure changes in brain activity during the different stages of forty winks however, in biofeedback EEG is used to give visual feedback of the activity of the argus-eyed brain. Biofeedback training however involves three stages, they includeDeveloping an awareness of the circumstance physiological response such as the heart rate culture ways of controlling that physiological response in quiet conditions. This can include providing rewards for successful control in addition to no feedbackTransferring that control into the conditions of everyday life.Assessing the effectiveness of biofeedback as a method of measuring stressThis method has been effective in signi ficant long-term reductions in stress in everyday life and has also led to benefits by producing a sense of control rather than purely psychological methods. Attanasio et al (1985) researched and found that biofeedback helped teenagers and children with stress related disorders to gain control over the symptoms of migraine headaches. The climb was however criticised that it treated symptoms rather than underlying conditions.Biofeedback has enjoyed a brief great deal of popularity since its inception in the late 1960s. It has successfully treated many medical problems, particularly stress related illnesses such as incontinence, fear, hypertension, circulatory problems, grating bowel syndrome and so on.Since its inception, it has produced significant long term reductions in stress in everyday life without any side effects unalike the other physiological approach ( medicates)Biofeedback may lead to benefits by producing a sense of control rather than purely psychological methods. I t is however not invasive, but rather voluntary.Arguably, the benefits of biofeedback could be gained from another relaxation technique and so biofeedback is an unnecessary expense. This serves as a limitation to biofeedback as a method of measuring stress.Recommendation of one way of stress measurement for use by the companyAbove all these methods of measuring stress, I provide recommend life events which falls under self report because it is by this way that the individual can fully express his/her olf fillings and pain through subjective questionnaire about their mental and physical state.Criteria 3.1Physiological approach to stress heed and controlStress control and management is the attempt that is made to cope with stress through reduction of the of the stress response. there are many approaches to bring down a persons stress levels, but usually, it is aimed at the physiological and psychological effects of stress. The basic target for stress management is usually based o n changing the individuals intuition of the stressor.Physiological approaches to stress management are techniques that try to control the bodys response to stress by reducing physiological activity. The physiological components of stress can include physiological arousal, sleep disturbance, fatigue, gastrointestinal disturbances, headaches, concentration problems, increased expression of irritability and anger, agitation, increased likeliness for illness, and reduced productivity. The impact and the expression of these stress symptoms vary with the individual and the stressful event. Two physiological methods for controlling stress include biofeedback and stress. However, I am going to evaluate one out these two, which is Anti-anxiety drugs technique.Anti-anxiety drugsAnti-anxiety drugs are medicines that are used calming and relaxing severe stress cases. They can also be used to calm nervousness, tension or for specific phobia disorder. The human body produces chemicals such as h ormones and neurotransmitters that create anxiety, which can be countered using other chemical substances such as drugs that reduce anxiety. There are different types of anti- anxiety that work through different mechanisms. The most common drugs areBeta-blockersBenzodiazepinesAlcohol (rarely used)Beta-blockersBeta-blockers are one of the drugs used control stress by reducing activity in the sympathetic nervous system. They have a direct action on the heart and circulatory system hence they decrease the heart rate and lower peripheral blood pressure. Their effects are on the body however, they do not have direct effects on brain activity. Lau et al. (1992) considered the findings from numerous studies in a meta-analysis hence combining data from several studies. Thus, beta-blockers have proved useful in reducing blood pressure and in treating patients with heart disease. mental research also concludes that, the drug reduced the risk of death by about 20% in patients suffering from h eart disease. It also enhances exertion in musicians and public speakers (Taylor 1995). However, one disadvantage of beta-blockers is that, they target symptoms rather than causes of anxiety and stress hence providing only temporary improvement.BenzodiazepinesSometimes when drugs are taken, they exceed in natural processes by controlling the action of neurotransmitters. Types of benzodiazepines include diazepam and Librium which are used for increasing the neurotransmitter GABA, which decreases serotonin activity, which eventually reduces arousal. Benzodiazepines are very effective and used worldwide by approximately cardinal million people. Despite its effectiveness, benzodiazepines have got some side effects which are linked to low levels of serotonin. Common effects can include drowsiness, do of cognitive and memory impairments, signatures of depression, and interacting unpredictably with alcohol Ashton (1997). Another effect of the drug is that, it is more likely to be invo lved with accident.Strengths of Anti-anxiety drugsAnti-anxiety drugs can be very effective in controlling severe feelings of stress. Beta blockers for instance act on the autonomic nervous system to reduce heart rate/blood pressure physiological stress arousal.Anti-depressant drugs, less often used, can be appropriate for severe anxietyBenzodiazepines such as diazepam increase the activity of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in the brain.Anti-anxiety drugs decrease arousal and relax the body by reducing tension in the muscles. Since stress response involves high arousal, tranquillizers may in some cases reduce stressWeaknesses of Anti-anxiety drugsAnti-anxiety drugs like benzodiazepines work by reducing brain activity. While this temporarily relieves anxiety, it can also lead to unwanted side effects.The higher the dose, the more pronounced these side effects typically are. But some people feel sleepy, foggy, and uncoordinated even on low doses of benzodiazepines, which can caus e problems with work, school, or everyday activities such as driving. Some even feel a medication hangover the next day.Because benzodiazepines are metabolized slowly, the medication can build up in the body when used over seven-day periods of time. The result is over sedation. hatful who are over sedated may look like theyre drunk.Anxyolitic drugs can cause psychological and physical dependence, tolerance and addiction. mental approach to stress management and controlPsychological approach to stress control and management are the techniques that try to control the cognitive, social, and emotional responses to stress. They do this by addressing the underlying cause of stress such as improper thinking. This approach works by changing the persons perception of the stressor and increasing their perception control. One psychological approach to stress control and management is the cognitive-behavioral therapy.Cognitive-behavioral therapyCognitive-behavioral therapy to controlling str ess is based on the cognitive appraisal definition of stress and aims to change a persons perceptions and thoughts relating to, and traffic with stressful disorders. This therapy is appropriate for dealing with stress hence the assumption behind the cognitive approach is that, it is the way one thinks about the problem that is maladaptive. Thus, if an individual can be trained to reorganise their thinking and self-beliefs, the underlying problem itself may simply disappear. This approach to managing stress involves stress vaccination training and robustness training.Stress inoculation trainingStress inoculation training (SIT) Unlike many cognitive therapies, stress inoculation training (SIT) is a more problem-focused deal strategy. It was developed by Donald Meichenbaum (1977, 1985) and the basic idea was to prepare individuals to cope with potential stressors. According to Meichenbaum (1985), the outstrip way to cope with stressors is to go on the offensive and try to pre-empt them. People should try to anticipate sources of stress and have effective get by strategies devise to put in place. Meichenbaum (1985) describes SIT asAnalogous to the concept of medical inoculation against infectious diseases It is designed to build psychological antibodies or coping skills, and to enhance resistance through exposure to stimuli that are strong plenty to arouse defences without being so powerful as to overcome them. (Meichenbaum 1985)There are three main phases in stress inoculation training1. Assessment with this training, the therapists discuss the nature of the problem with the individual, and solicit the individuals perception of how to elapse it. Meichenbaum (1985) considers this relationship to be very important as it provides the glue that allows the various aspects of the therapy to work together.2. Stress reduction techniques the individual learns various techniques for reducing stress, such as relaxation and self instructional training, communication , assertion, problem solving, anger control, parenting, study skills and using social support by using coping self statements.3. Application and follow through In this final phase, the individual imagines using the stress reduction techniques learned in the second phase in difficult smears and engages in role play of such situations with the therapists, before using the techniques in a real life situations.Strengths of stress inoculation trainingOne important strength of Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) is that, it is very flexible. This is because, it consists of a wide variety of cognitive and behavioural techniques tailored to the individual needs of the client, which can be used to deal with many types of stressor (e.g., time-limited/persistent, governable/uncontrollable, predictable/unpredictable, current/in the past).It has been found to be successful in helping people deal with the stress of chronic pain, performance anxiety, specific phobias and work related stress (Meiche nbaum, 1977, 1985). This training has also helped athletes deal with the stress of competition (Mace, Eastmen Carroll, 1986) and helping patients prepare for surgery (Langer, Janis Wolfer, 1975).Weakness of stress inoculation trainingStress inoculation training is however of less value when treating individuals who are highly stressed or exposed to very stressful situations. Most individuals differ in how easy they find it to use coping self statements in stressful situations.Hardiness trainingOver these years, much research into stress has shown that there are significant individual differences in the way that people respond to stress. Since some individuals seem to cope fall apart than others do, it makes sense to try to isolate the reasons why they can do so. The believe is that more effective ways of coping can be passed on to help those who are not as well prepared. Suzanne Kobasa (1986) has identified such individuals, who she describes as hardy, as those whose cognitive s trategies are recrudesce suited to dealing with stress. For example, they are more able to identify the symptoms of stress hence avoiding action can be taken in time. They make more down-to-earth assessments of stressors, including being aware of the positive aspects of stressful situations, opportunities and new challenges. Kobasa suggests that dare can be improved with appropriate training. Her programme consists of three techniques1. Focusing This explains that one should focus on the physical signs of stress and beware when further anxiety is needed.2. Reconstructing stress situations This technique the individual to think about recent stressful situations and note how it might have turned out both better and worse, hence becoming aware that things could have been worse enables you to feel more positive.3. Compensation through self-improvement If an individual is affected by a stressor that cannot be changed or avoided, then it may be helpful to take on another challenge tha t can be mastered. Consequently, this assures you that you can hope.Strengths of hardiness trainingThere is little direct research evidence on the effectiveness of hardiness training and what research there is, however, Fischman taught a small number of executives these strategies and they had greater job satisfaction, fewer headaches, and better sleep patternsWeaknesses of hardiness trainingReports were made that people who have followed this kind of programme do score higher on a test of hardiness, report feeling less stressed, and have lower blood pressure than before, Sarafino (1990).The study was through on a small scale and there was no follow-up, so results may have been due to increased attention and communication onlySummaryBoth Meichenbaum (1985) and Kobasas(1986) approaches to stress management place great dialect on the individual gaining control of a stressful situation because it is more often the sensation of being out of control that takes a situation beyond a person s ability to cope.